Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence began in the 1960s, the first attempts were game playing (checkers), theory proving a few simple theories and general problem solving. General problem solving was much more difficult than originally anticipated. Researchers were unable to tackle problems routinely handled by human experts. Artificial Intelligence can be defined in many ways as it depends from which point of view you look at it from. From the intelligence point of view artificial intelligence is to make machines intelligent thus making them act as we people would act. However artificial intelligence from a research perspective is how to make machines do things people are currently doing better in other words making machines do what we humans can do. Now from a business point of view artificial intelligence is a combination of powerful tools, and methods for using those tools to solve business problems. As for the programming point of view artificial intelligence is the study of symbolic programming, search and problem solving. Expert Systems: Expert systems are defined on bases functional and structural. Expert systems from a functional perspective are defined based on what the system does rather than how it does it. A computer program that behaves like a human expert in some useful ways. (Winston Prendergast, 1984) Nevertheless we can define expert systems on the bases of their structure in many ways depending on which angle we look at it from Problem area â€Å"Solve problems efficiently and effectively in a narrow problem area. (Waterman, 1986) typically, pertains to problems that can be symbolically represented (Liebowitz, 1988) Problem difficulty apply expert knowledge to difficult real world problems (Waterman, 1986) solve problems that are difficult enough to require significant human expertise for their solution (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) â€Å"Address problems normally thought to require human specialists for their solution (Michaelsen et al, 1985). Performance requirement the ability to perform at the level of an expert (Liebowitz, 1988) â€Å"Programs that mimic the advice-giving capabilities of human experts. (Brule, 1986, p.6) â€Å"Matches a competent level of human expertise in a particular field. (Bishop, 1986, p.38) â€Å"Can offer intelligent advice or make an intelligent decision about a processing function. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984, pp.9-10) â€Å"Allows a user to access this expertise in a way similar to that in which he might consult a human expert, with a similar result. (Edwards and Connell, 1989, p.3) Explain reasoning â€Å"The capability of the system, on demand, to justify its own line of reasoning in a manner directly intelligible to the enquirer. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984, p.9-10) incorporation of explanation processes (Liebowitz, 1988) Expert Systems from a structural perspective are defined on the bases of how the system functions. â€Å"Using the programming techniques of artificial intelligence, especially those techniques developed for problem solving (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) However we can define expert systems on the bases of their structure in many ways depending on which angle we look at it from Use AI techniques using the programming techniques of artificial intelligence, especially those techniques developed for problem solving (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) Knowledge component the embodiment within a computer of a knowledge-based component, from an expert skill (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984) a computer based system in which representations of expertise are stored (Edwards and Connell, 1989) The knowledge of an expert system consists of facts and heuristics. The facts constitute a body of information that is widely shared, publicly available, and generally agreed upon by experts in the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) Expert systems are sophisticated computer programs that manipulate knowledge to solve problems (Waterman, 1986) Separate knowledge and control â€Å"Make domain knowledge explicit and separate from the rest of the system (Waterman, 1986). Use inference procedures an intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inference procedures (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) The style adopted to attain these characteristics is a rule-based programming style. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984) Exhibit intelligent behavior by skillful application of heuristics. (Waterman, 1986). The heuristics are mostly private, little rules of good judgment (rules of plausible reasoning, rules of good guessing) that characterize expert-level decision making in the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) incorporation of ways of handling uncertainty(Liebowitz, 1988) Model human expert â€Å"Can be thought of as a model of the expertise of the best practitioners of the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) representation of domain-specific knowledge in the manner in which the expert thinks (Liebowitz, 1988) â€Å"Involving the use of appropriate information acquired previously from human experts. (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) Components of an Expert System An expert system consists of 4 main components which are listed below: Knowledge base a representation of the expertise and is usually inputted in IF THEN rules, and are usually put into a database for easy access by the system. Working storage Data which is specific to a problem being solved by the expert system. Inference engine the code at the core of the system which derives recommendations from the knowledge base and problem-specific data in working storage. User interface the code that controls the dialog between the user and the system. People and they consist of: Domain experts the individual or individuals who currently are experts in solving the problems the system is intended to solve. Knowledge engineers the individuals who encode the experts knowledge in a declarative form that can be used by the expert system. Users the individuals who will be consulting with the system to get advice which would have been provided by the expert. Furthermore there are some other optional components that might be added to the system as sub systems and which try to make the expert system more efficient thus making it more powerful and they are. Explanation sub system is used to explain the logic or reason of recommending a solution. Justifier is another name of explanation sub system. Justifier also explains why a solution is recommended or not recommended. Knowledge refining sub system is used to refine the knowledge in the knowledgebase after working every time over a problem. It works exactly like human beings who analyze their actions and learn from their mistakes to perform better in the future. Programming Languages Used to Develop Expert Systems Here are some of the programming languages used to develop expert systems. 1. LISP, developed in the 1950s, is the early programming language strongly associated with AI. LISP is a functional programming language with procedural extensions. LISP (LISt Processor) was specifically designed for processing heterogeneous lists which is a list of symbols. Features of LISP that made it attractive to AI researchers included Run- time type checking. Higher order functions (functions that have other functions as parameters). Automatic memory management (garbage collection) and an interactive environment. 2. The second language strongly associated with AI is PROLOG. PROLOG was developed in the 1970s. PROLOG is based on first order logic. PROLOG is declarative in nature and has facilities for explicitly limiting the search space. 3. Object-oriented languages are a class of languages more recently used for AI programming. Important features of object-oriented languages include: concepts of objects and messages objects bundle data and methods for manipulating the data sender specifies what is to be done receiver decides how to do it inheritance (object hierarchy where objects inherit the attributes of the more general class of objects) Examples of object-oriented languages are Smalltalk, Objective C, C++. Object oriented extensions to LISP (CLOS Common LISP Object System) and PROLOG (LO Logic Objects) are also used. The Difference between these programming languages and procedural programming languages. According to an article in the Information and Software Technology journal by Alexander Chatzigeorgiou of the Department of Applied Informatics, at the University of Macedonia, the object-oriented approach is known to introduce a significant performance penalty compared to classical procedural programming. For instance, profiling results for embedded applications indicate that C++ programs, apart from being slower than their corresponding C versions, consume significantly more energy (mainly due to the increased instruction count, larger code size and increased number of accesses to the data memory for the object-oriented versions). Example of an Expert System One of the most recognized expert systems used today by the general public is the online doctor due to the fact that many people use it daily. In brief this expert system is used to diagnose people by asking them what the problem is and then suggesting the actions that they should take which sounds very similar to an expert system where the illness is the problem the recommended actions are the solutions. In this example the website that was studied is www.yourdiagnosis.com In this expert system there are main components of the expert system and they are: The people The people are separated into three categories and they are: The domain experts who are actually the doctors who provide the data for the system. The knowledge engineers are the engineers who enter this system in a rule based input for example giving multiple choice questions to diagnose a cold. Do you feel cold.[ ] Do you feel hot? [ ]. Do you feel normal? [ ] System engineer who is the person in charge assembling and managing the system. The user who is the person asking for the diagnoses. The user interface The user interface is the website used by the user to find the diagnoses. Example: The inherence engine The inherence engine which in this case is made by the engineer using a web based programming language like ASP or PHP in the website from the last example we see that the programming language used is ASP and we can see that from the address bar. http://www.yourdiagnosis.com/yourdiagnosis/Yourdiagnosis.ASP?WCI=WorldMapHTMWCE=ClickWCU The knowledge base The knowledge base in this case is where all the rules that the knowledge engineer inputted them in this case the engineer used Microsoft SQL SERVER 2008. The knowledge in this case is the medical knowledge given by the doctors. The working storage The working storage in this case is a storage area on the server where each users data is stored in a relational database The benefits of using artificial intelligence The main benefits of using artificial intelligence are: Provide answers for decisions, processes and tasks that are repetitive Hold huge amounts of information Minimize employee training costs Centralize the decision making process Make things more efficient by reducing the time needed to solve problems Combine various human expertises. Reduce the number of errors caused by humans. Provide strategic and comparative advantages that may create problems for competitors Look over transactions that human experts may not think of Even though the benefits of artificial intelligence is more than the above we find that the main advantage to using artificial intelligence is to maximize the efficiency of a business thus giving the business the edge it needs to over throw its competitors. Why Artificial intelligence is hard to include in information systems The difficulties in including artificial intelligence in information systems are due to many facts one of which is the expense. Furthermore there are multiple factors why its so difficult to include artificial intelligence in information systems from which is the human acceptance to Artificial intelligence especially in the older groups another factor is that domain experts will be threatened by the fact that they are giving their expertise to a company and the fear of being redundant. From the technical point of view the implementation of artificial intelligence is quite hard due to the if rule conversion of the expertise. And the integration with old systems will require an effort especially for established companies with legacy hardware and software. Which brings us to the expense part of the problem? There is no doubt that artificial intelligence is an expensive approach as it is time consuming as it requires a lot of time and human resources. Furthermore developing artificial intelligence relies heavily on having the correct expert information and having something wrong in the knowledge base might cause damages which will lead to costly error and problems. Reference Anonymous. Dictionary of Computing, 1986, New York: Oxford University Press. Bishop, Peter. Fifth Generation Computers Concepts, Implementations Uses, 1986, Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood Ltd. Brule, James F. Artificial Intelligence: Theory, Logic and Application, 1986, Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books. Edwards, Alex and Connell, N.A.D. Expert Systems in Accounting, 1989, Herfordshire, UK: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Forsyth, Richard, Expert Systems: Principles and Case Studies, 1984, London: Chapman and Hall Computing. Harmon, Paul and King, David. Expert Systems: Artificial Intelligence in Business. 1985, New York: Wiley. Liebowitz, Jay, Introduction to Expert Systems, 1988, Santa Cruz, CA: Mitchell Publishing, Inc. Michaelsen, Robert H.; Michie, Donald and Boulanger, Albert. The Technology of Expert Systems Byte; April 1985 Rich, Elaine and Knight, Kevin. Artificial Intelligence Second Edition. 1991, New York: McGraw-Hill. Waterman, Donald A. A Guide to Expert Systems, 1986, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Winston, Patrick H. and Prendergast, Karen A. (Editors). The AI Business: Commercial Use of Artificial Intelligence, 1984, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Ruth A. Palmquist, Asst. Professor, AI and Expert Systems, 1996, http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/ai96.htm Dan E. OLeary, University of Southern California, 1994, http://accounting.rutgers.edu/raw/aies/www.bus.orst.edu/faculty/brownc/es_tutor/bus_ai.htm Robert S. Engelmore, May 1993; WTEC Hyper-Librarian, http://www.wtec.org/loyola/kb/c1_s1.htm Carol E. Brown, Oregon State University, Dan E. OLeary, University of Southern California, 1995, http://accounting.rutgers.edu/raw/aies/www.bus.orst.edu/faculty/brownc/es_tutor/es_tutor.htm#1-AI

Admiral Jarroc as a Traitor :: Star Trek Essays Papers

Admiral Jarroc as a Traitor In the Star Trek episode of "The Defector," Admiral Jarroc betrayed the Romulans by giving out his own empire state's information concerning a base being built in the neutral zone. For the sake of Admiral Jarroc's circumstance, he did not know whether he was being tested for his loyalty. According to R. H. Webster College Dictionary, a traitor is someone who commits treason by betraying his or her country. A loyal person will not reveal vital information to gain his or her personal advantages as Jarroc did to protect his family. Jarroc displayed his dishonesty first when he gave a false name and then destroyed his vessel before the Federation could examine it. This incident causes Captain Jean-Luc Picard and his crew members to have doubts regarding Jarroc's honesty. Then Admiral Jarroc told the Federation about an illegal base being built. The Romulans are building a military base too close to the Federation and this will cause a war to break out instantly. Jarroc also has no real evidence about the plans of a base being constructed in that area. On the other hand, he told Picard that he saw reports and work orders for the military base being planned out by the chief of the Romulans. Not only did Jarroc commit treason, his emotions played an important role in his decisions. To the Romulans officials, Jarroc is a traitor because he revealed secret information pertaining the illegal base to the their enemy. The reason why Jarroc betrayed his country is to save his daughter. For the safety of his daughter and the other Romulans, Jarroc released the information to the Federation hoping they can stop the construction of the military base that can cause war. Any loyal soldiers would have sacrifice anything for their empire. Jarroc let his emotions interfere with loyalty according to Joe Chung, "The Romulans are a race which the same ancestors as the Vulcans. The main difference between these two races is that the Vulcans are 100% logical and the Romulans act on their feelings." As you can see Romulans react to their emotion too and Jarroc is not any different from the rest of them. This explains why Jarroc's action committed this treason. Emotions can influence a person's decision and Jarroc happens to fallen within the characteristic of a traitor. According to my beliefs, Jarroc is a traitor because he betrayed his country or empire within the boundaries of danger.

Plot Summary for What Makes Sammy Run – Budd Schulberg

What makes Sammy Run? – Budd Schulberg Plot summary: Told in first person narrative by Al Manheim, drama critic of The New York Record, this is the tale of Sammy Glick, a young uneducated boy who rises from copy boy to the top of the screenwriting profession in 1930s Hollywood by backstabbingothers. Manheim recalls how he first met the 16-year-old Sammy Glick when Sammy was working as a copy boy at Manheim's newspaper. Both awed and disturbed by Sammy's aggressive personality, Manheim becomes Sammy's primary observer, mentor and, as Sammy asserts numerous times, his best friend.Tasked with taking Manheim's column down to the printing room, one day Glick rewrites Manheim's column, impressing the managing editor and gaining a column of his own. Later he steals a piece by an aspiring young writer, Julian Blumberg, sending it under his own name to the famous Hollywood talent agent Myron Selznick. Glick sells the piece, â€Å"Girl Steals Boy†, for $10,000 and leaves the pape r to go to work in Hollywood, leaving behind his girlfriend, Rosalie Goldbaum. When the film of Girl Steals Boy opens, Sammy is credited for â€Å"original screenplay† and Blumberg is not acknowledged.Glick rises to the top in Hollywood over the succeeding years, paying Blumberg a small salary under the table to be his ghost writer. He even manages to have â€Å"his† stageplay Live Wire performed at the Hollywood Playhouse, although the script is actually a case of plagiarism, The Front Page in flimsy disguise; strangely enough, no one except Manheim seems to notice. Sammy's bluffing also includes talking about books he has never read. Manheim, whose ambitions are much more modest, is both fascinated and disgusted by the figure of Sammy Glick, and Manheim carefully chronicles his rise.In Hollywood, Manheim is disheartened to learn that Catherine â€Å"Kit† Sargent, a novelist and screenwriter he greatly admires, has fallen for Sammy's charms. Although Manheim is quite open about his feelings for Kit, she makes it clear that it is Sammy she prefers, especially in bed. When she met Sammy, she tells Manheim, she had â€Å"this crazy desire to know what it felt like to have all that driving ambition and frenzy and violence inside me. † Manheim also describes the Hollywood system in detail, as a money machine oppressive to talented writers.The bosses prefer to have carte blanche when dealing with their writers, ranging from having them work on a week-to-week basis to giving them a seven-year contract. In the film industry, Manheim remarks at one point in the novel, it is the rule rather than the exception that â€Å"convictions are for sale,† with people double-crossing each other whenever the slightest chance presents itself to them. Hollywood, he notices, regularly and efficiently turns out three products: moving pictures, ambition, and fear.Manheim becomes an eyewitness to the birth of what was to become the Writers Guild, an o rganization created to protect the interests of the screenwriters. After one of the studio's periodic reshufflings, Manheim finds himself out of work and goes back to New York. There, still preoccupied with Sammy Glick's rise to stardom, he investigates Sammy's past. He comes to understand, at least to some degree, â€Å"the machinery that turns out Sammy Glicks† and â€Å"the anarchy of the poor†.Manheim realizes that Sammy grew up in the â€Å"dog-eat-dog world† of New York's Lower East Side (Rivington Street), much like the more sophisticated dog-eat-dog world of Hollywood. The one connection between Sammy's childhood days and his present position seems to be Sheik, someone who went to school with him and regularly beat him up. Now Sheik is working as Glick's personal servant (or almost slave)—possibly some kind of belated act of revenge on Sammy's part, or the â€Å"victim's triumph†. When Manheim returns to Hollywood he becomes one of Glick's writers.There he realizes that there is also a small minority of honorable men working in pictures, especially producer Sidney Fineman, Glick's boss. Manheim teams up with Kit Sargent to write several films for Glick, who has successfully switched to production and moved into a gigantic manor in Beverly Hills. Fineman's position becomes compromised by a string of flops, and Manheim attempts to convince Harrington, a Wall Street banker representing the film company's financiers, that Fineman is still the right man for the job. This is the moment when Glick sees his chance to get rid of Fineman altogether and take his place.At a reception, Glick meets Laurette, Harrington's daughter; he immediately and genuinely falls in love with this â€Å"golden girl,† discarding his girlfriend. He feels that he is about to kill two birds with one stone by uniting his personal ambition and his love life. Fineman, only 56, dies soon after losing his job to Sammy—of a broken heart, it i s rumoured. Sammy's wedding is described by Manheim as â€Å"a marriage-to-end-all-marriages† staged in the beautiful setting of Sammy's estate. Manheim and Kit Sargent, who have finally decided to get married, slip away early to be by themselves.Sammy discovers Laurette making love in the guest room to Carter Judd, an actor Sammy has just hired. Laurette is not repentant: She coldbloodedly admits that she considers their marriage to be purely a business affair. Sammy calls Manheim and asks him to come over to his place immediately. Once there, Manheim for the first time witnesses a self-conscious, desperate, and suffering Sammy Glick who cannot stand being alone in his big house. In the end, Sammy orders Sheik to get him a prostitute, while Manheim drives home.

Euthanasia And The Right Of Life And Euthanasia - 1558 Words

To speak of Right to Life and Euthanasia, first it should be defined by at least two notions: Euthanasia and the Right to Life, the first are definitions as those shown below: Some authors see that the concept or the notion of Euthanasia is too ambiguous, which can lead us to understand very different and even contradictory things. Let s refer to it: 1. A normed use: Death without physical suffering or which causes voluntarily Another use is the Factual painless death or death in a state of grace As etymological meaning. Or the Fight against suffering at any price. Suppression of life in an incurable illness, either their own or family request, the doctor or the state; decision to refrain from extraordinary means deemed disproportionate in the terminal phase and seen as therapeutic obstinacy. ; In the Greco-Roman world, it was good death Right to death itself, meaning appropriate death, others call dignified death. Given this disparity of meanings, must see the history of the word, looking at the meanings over time has been: In the Greco-Roman world is good die die well, that is dead right. But these three terms have received different meanings throughout history, first look at the fact of having a good die (without pain): In the Greco-Roman world, this means to die well, painless, does not account for help in dying. Cicero gives meaning to the word as dignified, honest and glorious death. In Greek history, Hippocrates (S. V BC) in his oath states thatShow MoreRelatedDo You Think That the Right to Life Entails a Right to Die Under Certain Circumstances? Should the Law Be Changed to Grant a Universal Right to Voluntary Euthanasia?1000 Words   |  4 Pagesthat the right to life entails a right to die under certain circumstances?† and â€Å"Should the laws be changed to grant a universal right to voluntary euthanasia?†. 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They are voluntary euthanasia, non-voluntary euthanasia and involuntaryRead MoreEuthanasia Essay : Euthanasia And Euthanasia863 Words   |  4 PagesThis is why Euthanasia is important and summarizing the research that I found on Euthanasia. Euthanasia is important because there is a lot of arguments about Euthanasia. Some people support it and some people do not support Euthanasia (Euthanasia and assisted suicide- Arguments). Euthanasia allows people to be free from physical pain. It is the hastening of death of a patient to prevent further sufferings (Euthanasia Revisited). The religious argument states God chooses when human life ends. EuthanasiaRead MoreThe Dilemma Of Euthanasi Whose Life Is It?1165 Words   |  5 PagesThe Dilemma of Euthanasia The Dilemma of Euthanasia: Whose Life Is It? Andrea R Burroughs Ethics for the Health Care Professionals Dr. Ferhat Zengul November 8, 2014 Abstract The practice of euthanasia is one of the most debatable topics in many countries today. It’s been a pertinent issue in human rights because it affects both legal and ethical issues. This paper will include an overview and clarification of the euthanasia issue. It will also include legal and ethical debates thatRead MoreEuthanasi The Issue Of Euthanasia1427 Words   |  6 Pages Euthanasia: The main purpose of this essay is to focus on the controversy surrounding the issue of euthanasia and analyse the pros and cons arguments regarding euthanasia. This essay will aim to analyse in further details the complexity of the matter regarding euthanasia and will argue the pros and cons of euthanasia and will also debate the major impact that legalising euthanasia might have on the society, on the medical industry andRead MoreEuthanasia Essay1474 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Kraig Ekstein Buck, Todd RELU 110 October 27, 2013 Euthanasia Throughout the world there are many contemporary ethical issues pertaining different religions throughout the globe. These issues have been around for many years and are still quite debated in today’s society. One of the most controversial issues is wither euthanasia is right or wrong. Euthanasia is an ongoing topic in religions throughout the world and each carries their own personal beliefs on the topic. In order to understand howRead MoreThe Debate Of Euthanasia And Euthanasia1429 Words   |  6 PagesINTRODUCTION: The debate of euthanasia is an ongoing one that’s shrouded with much controversy and ambiguity regarding the ethics of it in contemporary Australian society. However, the frequency of this topic being debated by physicians, influential figures and the media has become more prominent now than ever. In particular, in association with its impending legislation within Australian states. (The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists,2012) Various types of euthanasia are recognised,Read MoreEuthanasia Essay1533 Words   |  7 Pagesthe definition of euthanasia according to the International Anti-Euthanasia Task Force (Euthanasia: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions, 1). This definition, itself, does not sound very appealing. The practice of euthanasia in any shape or form should never be legalized in the United States and should be banned wherever it is presently legal. Whether it be the assisted suicides associated with quot;Doctor Deathquot;, Jack Kevorkian, or just simply taking away a patients life support from themRead MoreArgumentative Essay On Euthanasia1302 Words   |  6 Pagesbehind Euthanasia In an ethics class I took in high school, I have learned about many controversial topics. One that caught my attention specifically was euthanasia or the â€Å"right to die† as some call it. There are many types of Euthanasia, including active and passive. In class we debated the difference between the two and why passive euthanasia is legal and active is not. Active euthanasia is defined as â€Å"a person directly and deliberately causing the patient s death.† (Forms of euthanasia) PassiveRead MoreThe Islamic Ethical Principles Of Euthanasia Essay1419 Words   |  6 PagesHOW DOES ISLAM RESPOND TO EUTHANASIA? INTRODUCTION The objective of my inquiry is to find and investigate the Islamic ethical principles of the act of euthanasia, to see how Islam responds to euthanasia. The Islamic ethical principles that this investigation addresses includes the sanctity of human life and how only Allah has the right to decide the length of our lives, in relation to evidence given by the authentic Islamic sources of Quran, Hadith (sayings of the Prophet [Peace and Blessings of